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Kreneks Überblick über die Entwicklung west-europäischer Kunstmusik vom Gregorianischen Choral bis zu Monteverdi. Krenek hat diese Unterlagen für seinen Unterricht an der Hamline-University zusammengestellt. Sie zeigen eine gründliche Vorbereitung verweisen auf wissenschaftliche Literatur zu den einzelnen Abschnitten, auf Notenausgaben und Aufnahmen mit besonderen Hinweisen auf Verfügbarkeit in der Bibliothek der Hamline University.
1. The musical system of the ancient Greeks.
Tetrachords:
a) diatonic
b) chromatic
c) enharmonic
later: two diatonic tetrachords filling an octave:
later: Greater Perfect System:
"characteristic" octave (typical
for the range of the male voice)
Various "octave species" (arrangements of diatonic
series within the characteristic octave:
In the Greater Perfect System without accidentals the
octave species can be found as follows:
that is in descending order.
If the "octave species" appearing within the char-
acteristic octave are to be shown as parts of Greater Perfect
Systems, located in each of these Systems at the same place as they
appear in the original System, the result is as follows:
That is: since in the original system the octave species b) begins
one tone below the E, reaching from d to D, the System which
corresponds to the species b), reaching from e to E, must begin
one tone higher than E, that is F#. The diatonic series thus
obtained shows two sharps (C# and F#), according to the two
sharps appearing in the octave species b). That means that the
original diatonic series is now transposed up by one whole step
compare the relationship of C major and D major). The process
goes on, by computing the diatonic series corresponding to the
octave species c), d), e) etc. The corresponding diatonic
species follow each other in ascending order.
Result: if one calls the cave species "modes", the
modes follow each other in descending order with reference to
the untransposed Greater Perfect System.
If one wants to have all "modes" within the range
of the characteristic octave, one has to assume a sequence of
Greater Perfect Systems in ascending order, corresponding to
the previously established order of the modes.
[ref.
the Middle Ages]
2. Byzantine Chant. The music of the Eastern Church.
Strongly influenced by the music used in the earliest
centuries of the Christian religion, which goes back
to Asiatic sources (
About the theoretical organization of the tone mat-
erial little is known. Reference is made to the
"Oktoechos" (eight "sounds"), probably a sort of
tentative classification of tunes according to modal
characteristics. The term "mode" indicates here
certain characteristics common to various melodies
(skips, formulae, endings, etc.)
[ref.
3. Gregorain Chant, Notation, Neumes.
The music of the Western Church, collected and unified
under
A.D. The melodies were originally handed down orally only, later
written in "neumes". Since the significance of the neumes became
doubtful, much of the Gregorian melodies was corrupted in the
course of time. Through reconstruction through the monks of
in the 19th century, now accepted as authentic. Published in the
"Paleographie musicale" (15 vol.,
[Ref. record collections made by the
Benedictines of
tines of
explanations), Catholic choir,
The ancient theorist,
three ways of vocal rendition: continuous (inflection of normal speech
discontinuous (singing in definite
intervals)
medium (something in between the two,
probably similar to
"Sprechstimme")
Originally psalmody was of indefinite pitch, possibly in
the third of the above three manners.
Signs for indicating the desired inflection of the chant
were derived from the grammatic accents: acutus ´, gravis `, and
circlumflexus ^, which in turn were graphic imitations of the typical
gestures of the orator.
This oldest type of notation is called chironomic. Here
the form of the sign indicates the relative position of the tone.
It is later replaced by the diastematic notation (Greek:
diastema - interval). Here the position of the sign indicates the
pitch.
The characteristic symbols of chronomic notation are
accent signs, those of diastematic notation are points.
The transition from the former to the later notation
occurs mainly in the 9th century.
In the 10th and 11th century it is replaced by the Guidonian
notation, using staves and clefs.
The essential elements of the old neumes are the three
accent signs (see above). More signs are derived through combining
and modifying these original signs.
Forms of Gregorian Chant:
1. Strophic:
repetition of melodic and metric patterns
2. Psalmodic:
metrically irregular; alternation of
two melodic patterns, according to
the typical division of the psalm
verses in two sections.
3. Commatic:
free compositions with varying designs.
Manners of rendition:
1. Monologue:
sung by the celebrant
2. Dialogue:
a) responsorial: alternating between
b) antiphonal: alternating between two
sections of the choir.
Material of the Chant:
a) Office: service performed at various hours of the
liturgical day. Mostly antiphonal version of
Psalm texts. The melodic formulae used are
called Psalm Tones. Typical form of a psalm one:
b) Mass: Proprium (earlier; Ordinarium (later)
These melodies, assigned to properly trained
choirs, became more and more elaborate.
It became customary to extend the melodies,
particularly those on the word "Alleluja" by free
coloratur-like passages, called jubilus. As it
appeared difficult to memorize these jubili,
the monk
had the idea of setting words to the jubili,
assigning one syllable to each tone. These new
items were called sequences. They became so
popular that the unity of the service seemed
threatened. The Council of
therefore abolished all of them with exception of
four which are still being used.
The Guidonian neumes are:
1. ordinary (indicating the basic design of the
melody)
2. liquescent (indicating modifications of the
melody through the text)
3. Romanian letters (only in the
indicating dynamic and agogic nuances
[Oldest form of expression marks,
about
The basic forms of 1. are punctum
and vira
pes or podatus
clivis
torculus
porrectus
Further combinations result in neumes comprising three,
four and more tones. That shows that the neumes did not only indi-
cate pitches of single notes, but also units of phrasing.
The neumes of class 2 indicate mainly a sort of inter-
mediate short notes (like grace notes) which were inserted when an
accumulation of consonants seemed to call for it.
To this class also belong the quilism, indicating a sort
of shake, appearing on passing tones, as a rule.
The Romanian letters (allegedly introduced to the mona-
stery of
the singer (e.g.: c - citius, faster, t - trahere, retard,
v - velociter, quickly, etc.)
According to Paléographic musicale, all notes of the
Chant are of equal length (for divergent opinions see
Repeated notes on the same syllable are tied over.
The linguistic accent determines emphases on certain tones.
Apart from that, there is supposed to exist a delicate accent pattern
of "ictus", determined by the phrasing of the rhythmic units expressed
through the neumes. Thus for instance the first note of each group
carries an ictus; so does the note preceding a quilisma, etc. The
beats carrying the ictus are called theses, the other ones arses.
This, however, does not imply dynamic stresses on the theses (as
modern parlance would suggest), unless the linguistic accent co-
incides with a thesis. The Solesmes theory, however, maintains that
such is rather exceptional, the linguistic accent being usually
placed on an arsis, so that a very intricate interplay of linguistic
and neumatic accent patterns is the result.
4. The medieval modes. Identical with the Greek octave
species. The old names were used, but in opposite
order, due to misunderstandings in the translation
of the Greek terms for "octave species" and "Greater
Perfect Systems" (see 1.)
The melodies ascribed to the different modes usually
did not exceed the range of the octave (ambitus),
except for one tone below the first note of the modal
scale (final).
To each of the above shown authentic modes belongs one
plagal, or hypo-mode, which has the same final, but an
ambitus from a fourth below to a fifth above the final.
The system as shown here was not fully established until
chordon.
[ref.
5. Early Polyphony.
a) Organum in fifths. 10th century
b) Organum in fourths. 11th century
The augmented fourth (at x) was considered wrong,
so that it was ruled that the lower (organal)
voice should not go below the fourth one of the
lower tetrachord (g in [____]) Result:
The organal voice is set free (does not run any
longer constantly in parallels), and new inter-
vals are introduced.
c) New organum: contrary motion, thirds are used
more frequently [record: Medieval and Renaissance
music, 2; ref.: Oxford History of Music, v. 1]
d) In the 12th century the organal voice becomes more
and more florid [School of St. Martial, abbey near
against one note of the principal voice which is
"held" and hence called tenor (from Latin tenere -
to hold).
6. Solmization and Musica ficta
a) notation: first attempts to indicate the pitch of
tones more exactly; one line for C, one for f.
Later four lines.
b) hexachord system: a mnemonic device for singers,
exploiting the fact that six lines of a St. John's
hymn began each one diatonic step higher than the
preceding line. The tones were called after the
opening syllables of the text: ut, re, mi, fa, sol,
la. These syllables indicated the relative position
of any tone within a diatonic series. Applied to
the known range of tones, the following picture was
obtained:
Any tone in the system could be identified completely
by its combination of syllables.
The hexachords beginning on F required special treat-
ment since a half one step after A was needed. This
led to the introduction of B flat.
B rotundum, or molle
B quadratum, or durum.
The alteration was called "musica ficta" (artificial
music). It was used causa necessitatis (for the sake of
necessity, in order to avoid the tritone), or causa
pulchritudinis (for the sake of beauty, in order to
enhance expressive qualities). Practically only the
B(b)flat was used, but the theorists knew already the
complete twelve-tone scale.
[ref.
v. 1]
7.
Two, three, and four-part compositions (Duplum,
Triplum, Quadruplum). Development of organum: the
principal voice carries the melody in long sustained
notes, the organal voice, or voices, have florid counter-
points, usually in rather short phrases of equal length.
[record: Med & Ren. Music
2]
Forms of Composition:
Organum (see above)
Conductus (all participating parts are "measured"
see 8.] occasionally interspersed with
Organum)
Motetus (using a cantus firmus from the Gregorian
Chant in the Tenor)
Rondeau (phrases are
rudiments of "double counterpoint")
Rota (Canon; example - Summer is icumen in)
8. Cantus mensurabilis (measured music). (13th cent.)
Plain chant (cantus planus) - freely articulated, after the
inflexion of prose. Length of tones not determined. The rise
of polyphony made it necessary to determine the duration of
the single tones. Complicated systems of measurement, accord-
ing to the meters used in poetry. Later three levels of
measurement: Modus, Tempus, Prolatio, Perfect - triple time.
Imperfect: duple time. Example:
In the early period of polyphony only "perfect" subdivisions
were used.
After the Guidonian notation had achieved unequivocal designa-
tion of pitches, all further attempts in developing useful systems of
notation have been devoted to clear designation of rhythmic values.
Two main systematical trends: Black Notation and White
Notation.
Black notation: the essential devices added to the Guidonian
notes with the purpose of distinguishing various rhythmic values were
stems and dots. The old neumatic groups survived in the ligatures,
groups of notes; if the original meaning of such groupings was to
indicate metric relationships (according to the Solemes (ictus theory),
these groupings were now used to express rhythmie values, according to
the position of notes with or without downward or upward stems within
such ligatures. The systems evolved were not always consistent, very
complicated and variable. Franco of Cologne
more unified and usable system of notation, some principles of which
form still the basis of our present notation. Generally speaking,
problems arise, and changes in the notational principles become necessary,
as the evolution of the musical style proceeds to bring increasingly
smaller rhythmic values in the focus of attention. Later coloration
of notes is frequently being used in order to clarify rhythmic relation-
ships.
White notation: after
inating rhythmical values by using hollow and filled-in notes comes
into use. Ligatures still persist.
9. Counterpoint. (13th & 14th cent.)
Regulations in regard to the intervals to be used
between the parts. The most elaborate classification
(
consonances and dissonances (perfect, intermediate,
imperfect). Disagreement among the theorists in
regard to the classification of intervals.
Most important principle: the so called Franconian
law (13th century): only consonances on the first
beats of rhythmic units (not to be confused with the
modern concept of "strong beats", which involves
dynamic stress). For the rest, great freedom in the
use of dissonances.
Other rules emerging gradually and believed valid
at different times during this period:
The fourth is considered increasingly as a dissonante
and should not be used in relation to the lowest
part, preferably above a fifth. (
Sixth and thirds become more and more acceptable as
consonances.
One should avoid a sequence of perfect consonances.
(
In a three-part setting, the third part (triplum)
should have consonances with the principal part, dis-
sonances with the second part; preferably consonances
with the lowest part. [Anonymous I]
Contrary motion and parallel motion should alternate.
[ref.:
Oxford Hist./v. 1;
point] Introd. Vol and
10. Ars Nova.
a) greater rhythmic life and variety through
introduction of smaller rhythmic values, duple
time (prolatio imperfect) and syncopation;
b) more extended use of musica ficta in order to
comply with the keener discrimination of interval
qualities;
c) increased attention paid to cadences, through
purposeful use of leading tones.
First known polyphonic setting of the Ordinarium Missae:
Mass of Tournai (around
official. Motets, Ballads, one Mass.
Secular compositions: Ballads, Madrigal.
Use of Canon (caccia)
ref. Oxford Hist. v. 1;
Mus. Quart.]
11. Gamut, Mode and Key.
The diatonic series comprising the medieval modes
is nowadays called "gamut". In some compositions of the
13th and 14th centuries the different voices use
different gamuts simultaneously. This is shown by
accidentals in front of the stave (see
It means that the underlying diatonic series was trans-
posed to a different pitch.
Theoretically a diatonic series can be established
on any of the twelve tones, as it is done in the modern
system of keys.
In medieaeval music the number of available
transpositions was limited by the number of available
altered tones.
Since originally only the B flat was available,
only the gamut with B flat was used besides the original
one (shown under 6.) In this gamut the Dorian mode
begins on G, the Phrygian on A, etc.
More musica ficta came into being used, when it
became customary to raise leading tones in the approaches
to the finals from below.
Thus C sharp (in Dorian), F sharp (in Mixolydian)
and G sharp (in Aeolian) became available. Besides
B flat, E flat was used (as musica fict in the secondary
gamut, corresponding to B flat in the original one).
The question whether a transposed gamut can be
used, and how far it can be used, is determined by whether
the customary musica ficta will not exceed the number of
available altered tones.
The following table shows the transformations in-
volved in a transposition of the original gamut to one
with B flat (x marks the customary alterations):
of the new altered tones, only A flat is not available.
A Gamut with F sharp would give the following result:
Of the new altered tones, D sharp is not avail-
able; therefore the use of the Aeolian mode in this gamut
will be restricted, because the leading one of the
(transposed) Aeolian mode is D and could not be raised.
A gamut with 2 flats:
D flat and A flat are not available; therefore
melodic formations which in the original gamut require
E flat and B flat (that is mainly such in the Dorian
and Lydian Modes) will be difficult.
The transition from one gamut to another is
identical with the modern concept of modulation from
key to key.
Definition: Key is the pitch level of a mode.
The medieval idiom has six (twelve) modes, but
only a few keys, some of them incomplete (because not
all modes can be used in all of the keys.)
The tonal idiom has twelve keys, but only two
modes (major and minor).
12.
Hymns and Moses, mostly in three part settings.
Florid, lyrical, top-voice against sustained-
quiet progressions in the lower parts. Intricate
devices of canon. Typical cadence formulae:
Guillaume Dufay, Cannon of Cambrai (france), 1400, 1470.
Masses and Hymns. Use of the Cantus firmus as
a source for the thematic material of the whole
composition. Great rhythmic variety and subtle
distribution of accents and points of emphasis.
Cadence formulae as above, particularly
Most important source for music of the 15th cent:
the Codices of
der Tonkunst in
in
a reference library used by the Council of
(middle of the 16th cent.) during their deliberations
on ecclesiastical music.
[ref. Oxford Hist., v. 2; DTO,
Cod. of
"Se la face ay pale", on
in Anthologie Sonore;
13. The proportional system.
A device to change the tempo in one voice in relation
to that of other voices. This was not done by using
different rhythmic values or signs like 3, 5, 6,
as we would do in modern notation, but by indicating
how many of the standard rhythmic values should be
sung after the change of speed against a given number
of rhythmic values in the voice continuing in the
preceding, or basic speed.
An intricate system of proportions was worked out
by various theorists (
[or Tinctoris]). The most important are:
Genus multiplex.
In this genus the greater number contains
the smaller twice, or three or four times,
that is, after the change of speed the voice
affected by it proceeds (a) twice as fast,
or b) three, or c) four times as fast.
[Principle of diminution/].
Genus superparticulare.
The greater number contains the smaller plus
its half, or its third or its fourth part, that is,
after the change of speed the part affected by it
proceeds so that now (a) three of its rhythmic
values stand against two in the other part, or six
against four, or nine against six, etc.; or (b)
four against three, or eight against six, etc.; or
(c) five against four, ten against eight etc.
When these proportions are reversed, the ratios result
in augmentation instead of diminution. Further com-
binations lead to an unbelievable complexity of
rhythmic patterns.
[ref. Oxford Hist. v. 2]
14. The Netherland School of Polyphony.
Three epochs are usually distinguished:
1)
the 15th century;
2)
15th century;
3)
of the 15th c. and entire 16th century.
It is more correct to call 1) the Burgundian School,
as it was flourishing in the realm of
which was
2) the Flemish School, as most of the composers were Dutchmen;
3) the franco-flemish-Italian School, as the first international
style (after the Gregorian Chant), eventually including
and
[cf.
Netherlands Schools, Mus. Quart.,
15.
in
the devices of canon to unprecedented perfection.
He wrote pieces with as many as 36 voices; also
some curious compositions which could be sung in var-
ious different modes on different pitch levels,
by using always the same notation (such pieces
were called "Catholica"
[Oxf. Hist., V. ii;
tions, Mus. Quart.
His masses are very expressive and of great rhythmic
variety and liveliness.
[
later in
Ecclesiastical music in a style related to that of
[rec. Med. & Ren. Music, 7-10]
16.
Josse van der Weyden).
Pupil of
the Sistine Chapel.
His music shows complete mastery of the contra-
puntal resources developed by
shadows the elegance of the 16th century style.
He was interested in extending the devices of music
ficta (Motet "Absalon") and is credited with having
started the movement of the musica reservata (see 17.)
[L'Homme armé
Microfilms; AbsalonLa Sol Fa Re Mi
A term used in various treatises of the 16th century
(the first time by Hermannus Coclicus, about
without detailed explanation. Literally: reserved
music, such as music for a selected group of people
or the like. Numerous inconclusive explanations were
attempted. Recently Edward Lovinsky advanced the
following attractive theory:
Musica reservata is an unprecedented expansion
of musica ficta, with a view of using all possible
alterations, a practice which would ultimately destroy
the modal system and lead to modern chromatic harmony.
Such sments
composers interested in them did not notate the alter-
ations, but hinted at them by using tritonus progressions
and intervals which, in itself faulty, could be cor-
rected only by introducing the suspected alterations.
Only the initiated would know how to handle this music
correctly, reservata.
The following example is made up in order to dem-
onstrate the principle and is an extreme case the like
of which would be hardly found in the literature:
18.
1. Italian:
the place of his origin, a small town near
From
with the church choirs at the Vatican, St. John Lateran,
Santa Maria Maggiore and St. Peter in
His teachers were flemish composers, living in
of the occlesiastical music. The
(written
the legend.
Chant ordered by one of the popes of the period.
lamentations, 130 other sacred works, 140 madrigals, etc.)
[Complete works in 33 vol.]
(
Masses and Motets in
"Examples..." [
2. Flemish:
Studied in
director of music at the court of the Prince Elector of
Polyglot and international.
[41 masses, 160 sacred, 470 secular compositions etc.] A
collection of 516 was published after his death under the
title "Magnum Opus Musicum"
[Complete Works edition in
progress.
Photostatic Copy,
Library.]
3. Spanish:
Contemporary of
by
reformation).
From
[Complete works;
on
19. The 16th Century Style.
Perfect balance of all elements. Poise and elegance are
the main objectives, expressive power and originality are
admitted only inasfar as they do not disturb the former.
Complete and strict regulation of the treatment of disso-
nances. Dissonances are: Second, Fourth, Seventh, and all
diminished intervals. The Franconian Law (see...) is the
governing principle. Dissonances on accented beats must be
a) prepared (Tied over from the previous unaccented beat)
and b) resolved (stepwise down on the next unaccented beat).
The sharp dissonances (major seventh, minor second) occur very
rarely, if at all. In the melody stepwise motion prevails,
skips are comparatively rare and always carefully balanced
by stepwise motion. In regard to rhythm, the irregularity
and complexity of the 15th century gives way to an over-all
pulsation of alternating beats. This development makes
possible, and even causes, the complete rationalization of
the treatment of dissonances. The triad emerges definitely
as the standard consonant combination. In cadences the finalis
is from below always approached by a half-tone step, so that
the leading tones are always raised when necessary. Melodies
exceed frequently the original ambitus of a mode. The forth-
coming transition to harmonic orientation is foreshadowed in
treating the lowest part as if it were a progression of roots
of chords. The dominant-tonic function, however, is not yet
realized fully, the plagal cadence still prevailing.
This style is most perfectly embodied in
to the extent of becoming mannerified.
somewhat freer in rhythm and dissonance treatment under the
influence of secular music,
using dissonances through his desire for heightened expressive
intensity.
The premises of this style are fully analysed in the
Dodekachordon by the Swiss theorist
from
is the first to establish the complete system of 12 (6 auth.
& 6 plagal) modes, by adding the lonian and the Aeolian,
which are the only ones that would survive the er of the
modal idiom, in the form of the major and minor modes.
[
Counterpoint]
20. The End of Modal Polyphony and the Rise of Tonality.
a) Organic Evolution:
Over a period of several decades, his
madrigals show an increasingly liberal
interpretation of the principles laid
down by the polyphonic composers of the
16th century (unprepared dissonances,
resolution into perfect consonances, in-
creasing use of musica ficta, more con-
scious exploitation of the Dominant-Tonic
cadence). For these innovations he was
severely criticized by rms
referring to the new expressive tendencies
in music rather than with theoretical argu-
ments, the concept of modern tonality not
yet being ready for theoretical foundation.
(first "man-to-man" controversy between
composer and critic in the history). If
the typical "key-feeling" of later tonality
is not yet realized in this period, it is
due to an over-abundant use of Dominant-
Tonic progressions, so that no one pre-
vails enough in order to establish one
specific key.
The ultimate victory of tonal harmony over
modal polyphony is brought about through
the ascent of the operatic style ("monody":
one dominating melody performed by a solo
voice and supported by an accompaniment
of chords).
being in
of the Camerata, a learned society in
b) Irrational Interlude:
An Italian nobleman of whose life is little
known except that he had his wife murdered.
His madrigals show a lack of restraint in
the use of chromaticism out of any pro-
portion to the known practice of the period.
Thus he achieves an almost expressionistic
violence of emotional characterisation.
Theoretically he anticipates a state of
the tonal idiom reached again only in the
late 19th century.
(Over)
[